Frenkel defect and Wigner effect.

A Frenkel defect, Frenkel pair, or Frenkel disorder is a type of point defect in a crystal lattice. The defect forms when an atom or ion leaves its place in the lattice, creating a vacancy, and becomes an interstitial by lodging in a nearby location not usually occupied by an atom. Frenkel defects occur due to thermal vibrations, and it is theorized that there will be no defects in a crystal at 0 K. The phenomenon is named after the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel, who discovered it in 1926.

For example, consider a lattice formed by X and M ions. Suppose an M ion leaves the M sublattice, leaving the X sublattice unchanged. The number of interstitials formed will equal the number of vacancies formed.

One form of a Frenkel defect reaction in MgO with the oxygen ion leaving the lattice and going into the interstitial site written in Kröger–Vink notation:

+→++

This can be illustrated with the example of the sodium chloride crystal structure. The diagrams below are schematic two-dimensional representations.

The defect-free NaCl structure

Two Frenkel defects within the NaCl structure

Wigner effect: The Wigner effect (named for its discoverer, E. P. Wigner), also known as the discomposition effect, is the displacement of atoms in a solid caused by neutron radiation. Any solid can be affected by the Wigner effect, but the effect is of most concern in neutron moderators, such as graphite, that are used to slow down fast neutrons. The material surrounding the moderator receives a much smaller amount of neutron radiation, and from slower neutrons, and is not as worrisome.

An interstitial atom and its associated vacancy are known as a Frenkel defect.

Explanation:

To create the Wigner effect, neutrons that collide with the atoms in a crystal structure must have enough energy to displace them from the lattice. This amount (threshold displacement energy) is approximately 25 eV. A neutron's energy can vary widely but it is not uncommon to have energies up to and exceeding 10 MeV (10,000,000 eV) in the center of a nuclear reactor. A neutron with a significant amount of energy will create a displacement cascade in a matrix via elastic collisions. For example a 1 MeV neutron striking graphite will create 900 displacements, however not all displacements will create defects because some of the struck atoms will find and fill the vacancies that were either small pre-existing voids or vacancies newly formed by the other struck atoms.

The atoms that do not find a vacancy come to rest in non-ideal locations; that is, not along the symmetrical lines of the lattice. These atoms are referred to as interstitial atoms, or simply interstitials. Because these atoms are not in the ideal location they have an energy associated with them, much like a ball at the top of a hill has gravitational potential energy. When large amounts of interstitials have accumulated they pose a risk of releasing all of their energy suddenly, creating a temperature spike. Sudden unplanned increases in temperature can present a large risk for certain types of nuclear reactors with low operating temperatures and were the indirect cause of the Windscale fire. Accumulation of energy in irradiated graphite has been recorded as high as 2.7 kJ/g, but is typically much lower than this.[1] Despite some reports[which?], Wigner energy buildup had nothing to do with the Chernobyl disaster: This reactor, like all contemporary power reactors, operated at a high enough temperature to allow the displaced graphite structure to realign itself before any potential energy could be stored.

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